Methods for Short and Long Term Memory Formation

Methods for Short and Long Term Memory Formation The purpose of the experiment was to determine which Learning Method was the most effective for short- and long-term memory formation. Method efficacy was tested via a Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM), glyph recall test. There were four groups, each using a different Learning Method which varied in two factors: written repetition (10X/none) and movie viewing (before/after STM test). The Learning Method was used to introduce the symbols, and there was a short maths test before the STM test. Symbol recall was assessed again in the LTM test, three weeks later. As the LTM test was taken after the STM test, all students had watched the movies. Analysis suggested that Learning Method 1 produced higher scores; students who wrote the symbol 10X and viewed the movie prior to taking the STM test had significantly greater glyph recall compared to those who used the other methods (p While Learning Method 1 appeared to be the most effective, it is possible that the results were affected by experimental design flaws; notably, the non-standardised test conditions. The degree of symbol retention demonstrated on the LTM test may be related to memory consolidation, which is aided by hippocampal ripple oscillations. The Learning Methods for each group were as follows (for the method code definitions and full method, see the Appendix): Group 1 (Learning Method 1): WB-1X_MB_10X Group 2 (Learning Method 2): WB-1X_MA_10X Group 3 (Learning Method 3): WB-1X_MB Group 4 (Learning Method 4): WB-1X_MA The independent variable is the Learning Method and the dependent variable is the number of symbols recalled correctly on the memory tests (STM and LTM). Method 1 was the most involved (writing 10X, and watching the movie beforehand). The alternative hypotheses are: Ha: if Short-Term glyph recall is related to the Learning Method (Method 1, 2, 3, 4), then students in Group 1, who used Method 1 (WB-1X_MB_10X), will recall a greater number of symbols correctly on a Short-Term Memory test. Ha: if Long-Term glyph recall is related to the Learning Method used for the Short-Term Memory test (Method 1, 2, 3, 4), then students in Group 1, who used Method 1, will recall a greater number of symbols correctly on a Long-Term Memory test. For the STM data, Levene’s test established that there was an effect of variance (p p p p p = 0.8790) and those in Groups 3 and 4 (p = 0.9260). For the LTM data, Levene’s test established that there was no effect of variance (p > 0.05). As the variance is not significant, a One-way ANOVA and Tukey post-hoc test can be used to test the hypothesis. The One-way ANOVA established that LTM test scores differed as a function of Learning Method used [F(3, 124) = 66.0280, p p p = 0.6160). The results support the alternative hypotheses that if glyph recall is related to the Learning Method used, then students in Group 1 (who used Method 1) will recall a greater number of symbols correctly on both a STM and LTM test. As the test scores for students who used Method 1 were significantly higher in both the STM and LTM tests, at a significance level of 0.05, the alternative hypothesis is favoured. By adopting the alternative hypotheses there is a possibility of Type 1 error in both cases. The hippocampus contributes critically to memory formation, organisation, and storage Memory consolidation, a process that transforms newly acquired information into long-term memory, also depends on the hippocampus. Through consolidation, labile newly formed memory traces are progressively strengthened into long-term memories and become more resistant to interference. However, it is suggested that they remain susceptible to updating and modification The hippocampus generates high-frequency ripple oscillations in local-field potentials (LFPs), observed most prominently in the hippocampal CA1 pyramidal layer Ripples participate in strengthening and reorganising memory traces, possibly by mediating information transfer to neocortical areas Memory traces are represented by assemblies of principal neurons that are activated during ripple-associated network states There is evidence suggesting that memory consolidation is enhanced during sleep and resting (â€Å"off-line†) states Sleep is a state which optimises the consolidation of newly acquired information in memory, depending on the specific conditions of learning and the timing of sleep It induces long-lasting cellular and network modifications responsible for memory stabilisation A proposed neural mechanism for sleep-dependent memory consolidation, is reactivation of awake experience (neuronal replay) in the hippocampus which is associated with sharp wave-ripple (SPW-R) events that occur primarily during off-line states SPW-Rs are â€Å"aperiodic, recurrent instances of large deflections (sharp waves) in the hippocampal LFP†, and they are associated with synchronous fast-field oscillations (ripples) During SPW-R events, hippocampal cell firing closely follows the pattern that took place during the initial experience Theta (4-8 Hz) oscillations and ripples (~200 Hz) occurring during sharp waves may mediate encoding and consolidation, respectively. Pyramidal neurons replay previous waking activity in a temporally compressed manner, thus reactivated firing patterns occur within shorter time windows propitious for synaptic plasticity within the hippocampal network and in downstream neocortical structures. Slow-wave sleep (SWS) supports system consolidation and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep supports synaptic consolidation through specific patterns of neuromodulatory activity and electric field potential oscillations. During SWS, there is a diminution in cholinergic activity and the ripples stimulate the redistribution and transfer of hippocampus-dependent memories to the neocortex The thalamocortical spindles generated by the thalamus arrive at the neocortex at the same time as the hippocampal memory information, due to the slow oscillations which facilitate the transfer, and this synchronisation is thought to be vital to the long-term storage of memories within neocortical networks During REM sleep, at high cholinergic and theta activity, local increases in plasticity-related immediate-early gene activity may promote synaptic consolidation of memories in the cortex Incoming signals move through the hippocampus via a ‘trisynaptic loop’ consisting of synapses between principal cells in the dentate gyrus (DG), CA3 and CA1 Hofer et al investigated the cellular and network properties of SPW-Rs with simultaneous laminar multielectrode and intracellular recordings in a rat hippocampal slice model. Spontaneous SPW-Rs were generated in the DG, CA3, and CA1 regions During the memory encoding phase, the hippocampus binds neocortical representations to local memory traces. Then, during the off-line periods, the traces are concurrently reactivated in the hippocampus and cortex to potentiate the corticocortical connections underlying stored representations Studies show that disruption of ripples during post-learning SWS impairs memory consolidation and learning In an experiment conducted by Ego-Stengel and Wilson rats were trained daily in two identical tasks, each followed by a one hour rest period. Following one of the tasks, neuronal activity associated with ripple events was disrupted, without changing the sleep-wake structure, via selective stimulation of hippocampal afferents. It was found that the rats learned the control task significantly faster than the task followed by the stimulation, which suggests that interfering with hippocampal processing during sleep led to decreased learning Similarly, Nokia et al. found that disrupting hippocampal ripples using electrical stimulation either during training in awake animals, or during sleep after training, had a negative impact on learning A study by Wang et al indicated that the median raphe region (MnR) is important for regulating hippocampal ripple activity and memory consolidation. A fear conditioning procedure was used to determine this relationship, via interruption of ripple activity. Simultaneous in vivo recording in the MnR and hippocampus of mice showed that, when a group of MnR neurons was active, ripples were absent; ripple activity was related to the activity of MnR neurons. Additionally, MnR may regulate memory consolidation via its projections to thalamocortical regions, which facilitate interactions between the hippocampus, thalamus and cortical regions during SWS. Under the assumption that there was little deliberate reactivation of memory traces for the symbols in the three weeks following the STM test, the degree of retention of the symbols on the LTM test may be related to memory consolidation via hippocampal ripples occurring during sleep and rest. There were a number of limitations which may have affected the validity of the results. The major limitation was the non-standardised test conditions. Since different groups took the test at different times of the day, and different individuals have performance peaks at different clock times randomisation of subjects is important. This also leads to the possibility that students in an earlier group may have informed others of the symbols or experimental procedures. Knowledge of the tests could have influenced the students’ concentration, with those who knew being more likely to apply themselves to the Learning Method. While all students would be likely to undergo some degree of memory consolidation following the STM test, those who were aware of the experimental design would likely have greater retention. If all students took the test at the same time under standardised conditions, it would be less likely for this issue to affect the results. Additionally, the small sample size, and the fact that the participants were all students of one course (Neuroscience), also means that the external validity of the experiment, and thus the generalisability to groups other than the experimental group, cannot be established. There was also only one group per Learning Method, so it is unknown if the results are repeatable.

How Has Pop Music Changed over the Last 80 Years Essay

Over the past 80 years, pop music has changed largely due to many reasons. For example, our technology has developed majorly, resulting in auto tune being overused by popular artists of this generation, along with the change in the way we regard music now. Also, the genres of music that are now popular have changed, and rap and alternative/indie music have advanced massively in popularity. To begin with, technology has progressed a great deal, which has influenced music produced recently. An example of this is auto tune, which has been used by countless artists; Rihanna, Chris Brown, Ke$ha, Kanye West and Justin Bieber are only a small number of these. This means that music these days is much less natural, and artist’s voices are often entirely altered. Another way the development of technology has changed how we listen to pop music, is websites on the Internet such as YouTube, which allow us to explore different genres of music much more easily. Since TVs, radios, and cellular devices have been made more accessible, advertising for new music has become much more common, this means that we are introduced to new genres and styles of music. The development of technology has provided us with an overall easier access to music, and has opened us to different types of music that we would not have originally listened to. It also provided artists with a chance to use new types of editing to change the sound of their music. Music is popular with children, teenagers and adults. More often than not, teenagers are seen with mp3s and earphones, but children are often singing music from TV shows, and adults singing songs from ‘back in the day’. In the 50s, pop music stopped being a genre listened to by children and adults alike, but started being specifically for teens. Artists like Justin Bieber, One Direction, Elvis and The Wanted used sex appeal to make their music sell. Elvis was nicknamed ‘Elvis Pelvis’ for the way he moved his hips, and most boy bands are known better for their good looks than their music. Younger artists are now coming in with new music, and their music is appreciated more by teens who feel more of a relation with them, because of the closer age gap.

Determination of Refractive Index of Prism Using Spectrometer and Various Light Sources

Determination of Refractive Index of Prism using Spectrometer and Various Light Sources Dimain, Marion; Gonzales, Jade; Pancho Jr. , Ronel; Viloria, Matthew David College of Engineering, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines [email  protected] com [email  protected] com [email  protected] com tewhmat. [email  protected] com Abstract The study aims to measure the refractive index of a triangular prism using a spectrometer, utilizing different gas discharge tubes as light source.With the use of the discrete spectrum of mercury vapor, hydrogen gas and neon gas, each of the visible color in their respective spectrum passing through the prism was used as the incident ray. The results determined that the red light of the neon discharge tube brought about a calculated refractive index closest to the theoretical value. I. Introduction The spectrometer is an instrument for analyzing the spectra of radiations. A prism refracts the light into a single spe ctrum, whereas the diffraction grating divides the available light into several spectra.Because of this, slit images formed using a prism are generally brighter than those formed using a grating. Spectral lines that are too dim to be seen with a grating can often be seen using a prism. Unfortunately, the increased brightness of the spectral lines is offset by a decreased resolution, since the prism doesn’t separate the different lines as effectively as the grating. However, the brighter lines allow a narrow slit width to be used, which partially compensates for the reduced resolution. Prism refers to any transparent medium having two or more plane surfaces.A familiar example is the triangular prism, usually made of glass, used to split beam of white light into its component colors. When light is refracted through a prism it is dispersed into its constituent colors, and the angle at which the light emerges from the prism depends upon its wavelength. A prism spectrometer can be used to measure the deviation angles. Since the deviation angles also depend upon the index of refraction of the glass from which the prism is made, they can be used to calculate the index of refraction ? at the different wavelengths via: ? sinA+Dmin2sinA2 (1) where A is the apex angle of the prism and Dmin is the minimum deviation angle of a specific color in the discrete spectrum. [3] The tip of the prism where the two refracting surfaces meet is the apex angle. Deviation angle is defined as the angle between the original incident beam and the final transmitted beam. Figure 1. The apex angle A and the deviation angle D. [5] With reference to Figure 1, light travelling in medium n1 is incident at an angle ? i1 to the normal of one face of the prism having refractive index n2.The incident light is refracted at the first interface and travels at angle ? t1 with respect to the normal. This light is incident at the second face of the prism at an angle ? i2 and finally refracted again to exit the prism at angle ? t2. The deviation angle is therefore equal to: D=(? i1 – ? t1) + (? t2-? i2) (2) In Figure 1, the polygon abcd, there are two right angles ? abc and ? adc. Also for the polygon, since the sum of opposite angles should be 180? so ? bcd + ? A = 180?. [5] Further, in triangle bcd we have ? bcd+? 1+ ? i2=180?. Therefore, the sum of angle A is ? t1+? i2. Relating D and A, D=? i1+ ? t2- ? A. When the prism is rotated perpendicular to the plane of incidence, i. e. such that the incidence angle ? i1 is varied continuously, the deviation of the transmitted light changes. [5] This deviation goes through a minimum Dmin. By symmetry we can argue that the minimum deviation position should be independent of the direction in which light enters the prism. In other words, light entering the prism from the left or right should exhibit the same properties of refraction, minimum deviation, etc. 5] Therefore, if we reverse the direction of light, thus having the new incident light ? i1new=? t2old and ? t2new=? i1old. Experimentally, it is observed that Dmin occurs when the refracted ray inside the prism makes equal angles with the two faces. This means that if we reverse the direction in which light is incident on the prism, we have a new ? i1= ? t2at which the Dmin occurs. However, experimentally, only one Dmin occurs and therefore ? i1= ? t2 at Dmin. [5] Using Snell’s law, we have: n1n2=sin? i1sin? t1 (3) Using minimum deviation we have:Dmin=2sin? i1-A or ? i1=Dmin+A2 (4) From the equivalent sum of angle A, ? t1=A-? i2. Thus, using the minimum angle condition we have ? t1=A2. Substituting the values of ? i1 and ? t1 with n2 as one on Equation 3, yields Equation 1. II. Methodology The materials utilized in the study were triangular prism of unknown refractive index, laser light source, protractor, gas discharge tubes (mercury, hydrogen, and neon), high voltage power supply for discharge tubes and spectrometer.The index of refraction of the prism was first measured using the protractor, laser light source and prism. First the telescope was focused to distant objects i. e. infinity and maintained until the experiment is over, so as not to refocus again. [2] The collimator was adjusted such that the image seen in the telescope is sharp. [2] The diffraction grating holder from the spectrometer table was removed and replaced with prism clamp. The triangular prism was placed and clipped on the table and oriented as shown in Figure 2.The telescope was set to read the angle of the light that is reflected off each face of the prism. The difference between the scale readings at clockwise point a and counterclockwise point b, shown in the Figure 2, equals twice the apex angle A. The value of the apex angle A was calculated. Figure 2. The experimental set-up and measurement of the apex angle A. [3] Using the positioning jig, the prism was rotated on the spectrometer table so that it is oriented as shown in Figure 3. When gas es or vapors of elements are heated or exposed to high voltage they emit light.The emitted light can be split into its component wavelengths by passing it through a diffraction grating or prism. The emission spectrum is unique and characteristic to each element. The discrete spectrum each gas discharge tube was observed. The average angular displacements (clockwise and counter-clockwise) of each color were tabulated while rotating the telescope as the visible colors of the spectra was scanned. Using the values gathered for the apex angles and angle of minimum deviation, the index refraction was computed using Equation 1. Figure 3.Measurement of the angle of minimum deviation D. [3] III. Results and Discussion The measured apex angle A of the prism was 60?. Using the laser light source the angle of 45? was used as incident angle with respect to the normal line, the emergent ray has a 28?. The calculated refractive index, using Equation 3, was 1. 506175959; this will be treated as the theoretical value. The table below shows the calculated index of refraction using Equation 1. The only visible colors for mercury discharge tube were violet, green and yellow, red and blue-green for hydrogen, and yellow and red for neon.The visible colors in each spectrum using prism were less compared when using diffraction grating. This can be due to the limited scope observable using triangular prisms as dispersion agent of the spectrometer. There was an increasing trend of indices as minimum deviation angle increases and as the wavelength of the colored light decreases independent of the element contained in the discharge tube. A prism refracts the light into a single spectrum, whereas the diffraction grating divides the available light into several spectra.Because of this, slit images formed using a prism are generally brighter than those formed using a grating. That is why prisms are preferred when the desired dispersion is weak. Spectral lines that are too dim to be seen wit h a grating can often be seen using a prism. Unfortunately, the increased brightness of the spectral lines is offset by a decreased resolution, since the prism doesn’t separate the different lines as effectively as the grating. However, the brighter lines allow a narrow slit width to be used, which partially compensates for the reduced resolution.The lesser number of colors of light seen in the scope of a spectrometer utilizing a prism as a dispersion medium can also be associated to the unseparated spectral lines of the discharge tubes. The average value of the refractive index closest to the theoretical was given off by the neon discharge tube with 1. 515508062 and 0. 6196% deviation. The color red of neon gave off the refractive index closest to the theoretical with 1. 513609903. It connotes that it is more reliable to use neon discharge than mercury and hydrogen in measuring the index of refraction of a prism.The experimental design inadequately addressed the hypothesis d ue to unavailability of materials; further experimentation could be done using other elements and other prism of different refractive indices and apex angles to explore if there will a significant difference with respect to the gathered data. Table 1. Different minimum deviation angles of the spectrum of different discharge tubes. Element| Color| Minimum Deviation Angle D| Index of Refraction ? | Average Index of Refraction ? | Percent Deviation| Mercury| Violet| 41? 30’| 1. 548785288| 1. 540510872| 2. 2796%| | Green| 40? 44’| 1. 540284548| | | | Yellow| 40? 2’| 1. 3246278| | | Hydrogen| Blue-Green| 39? 56’| 1. 53134071| 1. 528902825| 1. 8384%| | Red| 39? 30’| 1. 52646494| | | Neon| Yellow| 38? 42’| 1. 517406221| 1. 515508062| 0. 6196%| | Red| 38? 22’| 1. 513609903| | | IV. Conclusion and Recommendation It is therefore concluded that the refractive index of a prism can be measured using a spectrometer. The most reliable gas discharge tube between hydrogen, mercury and neon to measure refractive indices was neon with 1. 515508062 and 0. 6196 percent deviated from the theoretical value of 1. 506175959. The color red of neon gave off the refractive index closest to the theoretical with 1. 13609903. The visible colors in each spectrum using prism were less compared when using diffraction grating. There was an increasing trend of indices as minimum deviation angle increases and as the wavelength of colored light decreases independent of the element contained in the discharge tube. The experimental design inadequately addressed the hypothesis due to unavailability of materials, further experimentation could be done using other elements and other prism of different refractive indices and apex angles to explore if there will a significant difference with respect to the gathered data.Acknowledgements First and foremost, the students would like to thank Mrs. Jen-jen Manuel, our physics laboratory instructor, for his patie nce, guidance and understanding. The National Institute of Physics for letting us conduct this experiment. The staff in-charge-of-the-instruments for letting the students borrow instruments vouched by University of the Philippines I. D. References 1. Young, H. , University Physics, 12th Edition L. P. E. , Chapter 38: Photons: Light Waves Behaving As Particles, Photoelectric Effect, Pearson Education South Asia PTE LTD (2009). 2. Go, Mary Ann, et. l. (Laboratory Manual Authors), Physics 73. 1, Spectral Fingerprinting, The Spectrometer (2007). 3. http://www. cmi. ac. in/~debangshu/lab1/spectrometer. pdf 4. http://uregina. ca/~szymanss/uglabs/p112/Experiments/112-08Spectr08. pdf 5. https://www. google. com. ph/url? sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&cad=rja&ved=0CEUQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics. wustl. edu%2Fclassinfo%2F316%2FTheory%2FRefraction. pdf&ei=0I0xUe_iA6i9iAfiooGoBg&usg=AFQjCNEfjICiK9bxd9xT7AZsYZT-j5ybDw&sig2=s9OmxcBtP3WtmnbVM7nlQQ&bvm=bv. 43148975,d. aGc

The Five Context Of Communication - 1009 Words

The five context of communication are Intrapersonal Communication, interpersonal communication, group communication, public communication, and mass communication. Intrapersonal communication is when you have thoughts within yourself about things you want to say. It is often called self-talk. You having conversation with yourself about things you would like to say or ask. For example, the voice within you that tells you, â€Å"Keep on Going! I can DO IT!† when you are putting your all into completing a five mile race; or that says, â€Å"This report I’ve written is pretty good.† Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences how you perceive and react to situations and communication with†¦show more content†¦My sister and I are very close and we usually are using the interpersonal communication. I would say that interpersonal communication is the one I may be using the most. Group communication is when a small group have a conversation all together. It can be a conversation among friends or in a class room with your classmates. A group communication can be at a meeting at work as well, or even having a conversation with some co-workers. For example, sitting with your friends and making plans to go out. Every morning at my job when I make it early I always have a group communication. We sit in the office and just talk about our day or what we will be doing during our day. I would that this is another context that I use a lot as well. I m usually around people and be using the group communication. Public communication is when one person speaks to a group of people. For example if we in a meeting the supervisor is the one who is doing the public communication. Public communication can also be when someone writes a message to a group of people. The person either speaking or writing back would be the public communicator. In a public speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker. 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